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a Univ. of Idaho, Kimberly Research & Extension Center, 3793 North 3600 East, Kimberly, ID 83341
b Mision Biologica de Galicia, Carballeira 8, 36143 Salcedo, Pontevedra, Spain
c Univ. of Idaho, Parma Research & Extension Center, 29603 U of I Lane, Parma, ID 83660
* Corresponding author (singh{at}kimberly.uidaho.edu).
ABSTRACT
Pinto dry bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) ‘Kimberly’ (Reg. No. CV-283, PI 653256) and ‘Shoshone’ (Reg. No. CV-284, PI 653257) were developed at the University of Idaho-Kimberly Agricultural Research and Extension Center. Both were released by the Idaho Agricultural Experiment Station on 12 Apr. 2007. Kimberly is a full-season (100 d to maturity) and Shoshone is an early- to medium-maturing cultivar. Both have light-colored and slow-darkening pinto seed. Both are high-yielding, widely adapted cultivars and possess the bc-3 and I genes imparting resistance to all strains of Bean common mosaic virus and Bean common mosaic necrosis virus (an aphid-vectored potyvirus) and to rust [caused by Uromyces appendiculatus (Pers.) Ung.]. Both also have moderate to high levels of resistance to heat and drought. However, both are susceptible to soil zinc deficiency and manganese toxicity.
Abbreviations: AREC, Agricultural Research and Extension Center • BCMNV, Bean common mosaic necrosis virus • BCMV, Bean common mosaic virus • BCTV, Beet curly top virus • CDBN, Cooperative Dry Bean Nursery • CIAT, Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical • IDBT, Idaho Dry Bean Trial • WRBT, Western Regional Bean Trial
Pinto bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) is by far the most important market class in the United States and probably all of North America. Pinto bean belongs to the Durango race that was domesticated from the wild bean in the semiarid highlands of Mexico (Singh, 1989; Singh et al., 1991). Native Americans introduced landraces in the western United States from Mexican highlands thousands of years before the arrival of European settlers (Gentry, 1969; Kaplan, 1956; Kaplan and Lynch, 1999), and cultivars of this race (which also includes great northern, pink, and red market classes, among others) still dominate dry bean production in the western United States. All landraces and most bred cultivars of this race are characterized by an indeterminate prostrate growth habit Type III (Singh, 1982). Often the leaves and lower internodes of race Durango cultivars are shorter than those of small (<25 g 100 seed weight–1) black and navy cultivars of race Mesoamerica and large (
40 g 100 seed weight–1) dark red kidney and cranberry cultivars of race Nueva Granada. Moreover, in the western United States, often the race Durango cultivars outyield their counterparts from races Mesoamerica and Nueva Granada (Singh and Powers, 2000).
The cropping season often extends from mid-May to mid-September. However, because of low soil temperatures (<15°C) and late season frost in May and early frost in September dry bean cultivars of <100 d maturity are preferred. Furthermore, although there still may be some dryland production of the common bean, especially in Arizona, Colorado, and New Mexico, most dry and green bean in the western United States is grown under gravity and sprinkler irrigation. Five to eight irrigations generally are applied, yet the crop may suffer from a mild to severe drought stress because of the higher solar radiation, ambient temperature, and wind during summer months. Similarly, calcareous soils with high pH (>7.5) predominate in the region, causing deficiency of minerals such as boron, iron, phosphorus, and zinc and toxicity of manganese in susceptible cultivars. Traditional or conventional bean producers routinely use fertilizer, composted manure, and other products to correct for soil mineral deficiencies and toxicities. Among the diseases Bean common mosaic virus (BCMV), Beet curly top virus (BCTV, a leafhopper-vectored curtovirus), root rots (mostly caused by Fusarium solani and Rhizoctonia solani), and white mold [caused by Sclerotinia sclerotiorum (Lib.) de Bary] are endemic and widespread problems in the region.
Dean (1994, 2000), among others, reviewed the history of dry bean breeding, especially in Idaho and other western states. Breeding for resistance to diseases such as BCMV, BCTV, and root rots, and for early maturity was emphasized (Burke and Miller, 1983; Dean, 2000; Wood, 1982). Brick and Grafton (1999) reviewed the strategies used and progress achieved in improving cultivars of race Durango. Miklas (2000) further reviewed the use of germplasm for improving cultivars of race Durango. More recently, Singh et al. (2007) assessed the genetic progress achieved in improving seed yield, plant type, maturity, and resistance to major bacterial, fungal, and viral diseases in the past 75 yr. However, little or no progress was achieved in selection against the post-harvest seed coat darkening of pinto, pink, and red market classes, which may be more problematic in the more humid midwestern United States where the bulk of edible dry bean is produced. The objective of this research was to develop light-colored, slow-darkening, high-yielding, broadly adapted and BCMV and rust [caused by Uromyces appendiculatus (Pers.) Ung.]–resistant pinto cultivars Kimberly (Reg. No. CV-283, PI 653256) and Shoshone (Reg. No. 284, PI 653257).
Materials and Methods
Kimberly was derived from the double-cross population UIP7 = ‘Poncho’/G 17341//‘Kodiak’/BelDakMi-RMR-14 made in 1999–2000. Pinto Poncho is a Rogers/Syngenta cultivar with indeterminate prostrate growth habit Type III, which is susceptible to BCMV (US-6 strain), Bean common mosaic necrosis virus (BCMNV, an aphid-vectored potyvirus) (NL-3K strain), and the race 53 of U. appendiculatus. G 17341 was selected at the Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT), Palmira, Colombia, from a population developed at Cornell University (R.E. Wilkinson, personal communication, 1985). G 17341 with a growth habit Type III has an intermediate level of resistance to common bacterial blight [caused by Xanthomonas campestris pv. phaseoli (Smith) Dye and X. campestris pv. fuscans] (Lema et al., 2007) and races 73 (Middle American), Alpha, and Delta of Colletotrichum lindemuthianum (Sacc. & Magn.) Lams.-Scrib., the cause of anthracnose. The small shiny pinto seed of G 17341 is variable for a slow-darkening trait that allows for improved post-harvest storage and reduced degradation of seed-coat color. Stavely et al. (1998) at the USDA-ARS, Beltsville, MD, and North Dakota and Michigan Agricultural Experiment Stations cooperatively developed pinto germplasm line BelDakMiRMR-14. BelDakMiRMR-14 has growth habit Type III and pyramided resistance to all known strains of BCMV and BCMNV, and all races of U. appendiculatus in the United States. The Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station released pinto Kodiak (Kelly et al., 1999a). Kodiak has an indeterminate semi-upright or erect growth habit Type II with small to medium length vine in southern Idaho. Kodiak carries the I gene resistance to the US-6 and all other strains of the BCMV. In addition, Kodiak exhibits local necrosis or pinpoint lesions when inoculated with the NL-3K strain of the BCMNV. Kodiak is resistant (no disease symptoms) to the race 38 (Andean) of U. appendiculatus but exhibits an intermediate reaction or small pustules when inoculated with race 53 of the pathogen.
The double-cross F2 population was grown in the field at Parma, ID. A single plant selection was made that exhibited the light-colored slow-darkening pinto seed. The F2–derived F3 (F2:3) progeny row was grown in the greenhouse where a single plant selection was made for resistance to the US-6 strain of BCMV and light-colored slow-darkening pinto seed. The F3:4 progeny-row was grown in the field at Kimberly, Idaho and plants selected for slow darkening pinto seed were harvested in bulk. A single-plant selection for light-colored slow darkening pinto seed was made in F5 in the field at Parma. The F6 progeny-row was screened in the greenhouse for BCMV resistance and slow-darkening pinto seed, all plants harvested in bulk, followed by seed increase in the field at Kimberly. Six F6 plants were screened for resistance to races 38 and 53 of U. appendiculatus in a separate greenhouse at Filer, ID. Kimberly was tested in the Idaho Dry Bean Trial (IDBT), Western Regional Bean Trial (WRBT), Cooperative Dry Bean Nursery (CDBN), and/or state trials as UIP7-24P-2P, ABL 13, and/or 06I15 from 2004 to 2006.
Shoshone was derived from a multiple-parent population UIP15 = H9657-42-2/3/Poncho/G 17341//Kodiak/BelDakMi-RMR-14 made in 1999–2000. Breeding line H9657-42-2 with a tall upright growth habit Type II and large pinto seed was developed at USDA-ARS, Prosser, WA (P. Miklas, personal communication, 2007). The multiple-parent F1 was screened in the greenhouse for the US-6 strain of BCMV. An early-maturing BCMV-resistant plant was harvested and the F1–derived F2 (F1:2) progeny-row was planted in the field at Kimberly, following gamete selection (Singh, 1994; Asensio-S.-Manzanera et al., 2006). Selection was made for early-maturing slow-darkening light pinto seed-coat color, and all selected plants were harvested in bulk. Six plants were screened for BCMV in the greenhouse, and a similar set was screened separately for the races 38 and 53 of U. appendiculatus in another greenhouse at Filer. An early-maturing BCMV-resistant plant with light-colored slow-darkening pinto seed was harvested. The F3:4 plant-to-progeny row was grown in the field at Parma, ID, where all early-maturing plants with light pinto seed color were harvested in bulk followed by seed increase in the greenhouse and then in the field at Kimberly. Shoshone was tested in the IDBT, WRBT, CDBN, and/or some state trials as UIP15-53G-4G1, ABL 8, and/or 06I4 from 2004 to 2006.
In the IDBT, WRBT, and CDBN, data were recorded for growth habit, number of days to maturity, seed yield, and 100-seed weight, among other traits. Additionally, the two cultivars were tested for reaction to Fusarium root rot [caused by Fusarium solani f. sp. phaseoli (Burkh.) Snyd. & Hansen] and BCTV in the field at Prosser, WA, for soil zinc deficiency in the field at Kimberly, ID, and C. lindemuthianum races 23 and 73, common bacterial blight [caused by Xanthomonas campestris pv. phaseoli and Xanthomonas campestris pv. phaseoli var. fuscans], halo blight [caused by Pseudomonas syringae pv. phaseolicola (Burkh.) race 2], and white mold [caused by Sclerotinia sclerotiorum (Lib.) de Bary] in separate greenhouse nurseries at Filer or Kimberly. All data were analyzed using the SAS (v 9.1) PROC GLM statistical package (SAS Institute, 2004).
Results and Discussion
Plant Characteristics
Kimberly has an indeterminate semiprostrate growth habit Type III with medium to large vine. The central leaflet of the fully developed trifoliolate leaf is ovate with an average length of 10.5 cm and width of 8.0 cm. The flower bracteoles are medium-sized ovate. Flower color is white with the absence of stripes at the outer base of the standard. Shoshone also has a growth habit Type III with small- to medium-length vine. The average length of the central leaflet of the fully developed trifoliolate leaf is 9 cm, and width is 7 cm. The flower bracteoles are large chordate. Flower color is white with the absence of stripes at the outer base of the standard.
The Type III growth habit of Kimberly and Shoshone was similar to the growth habit of the majority of the parents used in crosses. Nonetheless, Kodiak with 25% genetic contribution had growth habit Type II in the cross UIP7 from which Kimberly was derived. Similarly, Kodiak with 12.5% and H9657-42–2/3 with 50% genetic contribution in the cross UIP15 had growth habit Type II from which Shoshone was selected. Despite that, neither Kimberly nor Shoshone with a light-colored slow-darkening pinto had growth habit Type II. In common bean, increasing indeterminacy (i.e., from determinate Type I to indeterminate Types II to IV) and the weakness of stem and branches are dominant traits. Moreover, while the determinate growth habit is controlled by a single recessive gene fin (Bliss, 1971) located on the linkage group B1 or chromosome 2 (Miklas and Singh, 2007), the expression and inheritance of stem strength or erectness seems to be more complex, affected by growing conditions, and is quantitatively inherited (Brothers and Kelly, 1993; Kelly, 2001). Furthermore, in our study, selection for growth habit was not practiced in any generation.
Because the western United States has a semiarid environment and bean is largely produced for seed under gravity irrigation, producers of pinto and other market classes of race Durango cultivars thus far have capitalized on the comparatively higher yield potential of the prostrate viny Type III over erect Type I and Type II cultivars. However, in the recent years, the area planted to pinto and other market classes of race Durango cultivars have dramatically increased in the midwestern United States (e.g., North Dakota, Michigan) and in Manitoba, Alberta, Ontario, and Saskatchewan, Canada. In these regions, upright Type II growth habit cultivars are sought after to minimize yield losses from foliar diseases. The high humidity favors diseases such as white mold, anthracnose, rust, and common bacterial blight. Furthermore, in addition to disease avoidance mechanisms of the open upright plant canopy and consequently better seed quality than Type III cultivars because of reduced contact of pods with the soil, Type II cultivars would be more suitable for the one-step direct harvest, thus reducing production costs and dependence on farm labor and energy. Breeders interested in Type II cultivars should simultaneously select for upright growth habit and slow-darkening light pinto seed coat color from the early generations. However, the early-generation simultaneous selection for both traits would require much larger plant population in the F1, F2, and F3 because the frequency of such genotypes would be low. Alternatively, the selection for these two and other recessive traits could be delayed until latter generations (e.g., F5 and F6), especially when advancing considerably larger genetic variability through early generations using the single-seed-descent method.
Maturity
Kimberly is a full-season cultivar taking 91 to 103 d with mean of 97 d, compared with a range of 86 to 101 and mean of 95 d for ‘Bill Z’ across 15 environments comprising stressed and nonstressed organic and conventional production systems in the IDBT in southern Idaho in 2005 and 2006 (Table 1
). Its maturity ranged from 99 to 103 d with a mean of 101 d compared with a range of 90 to 98 d and mean of 95 d for Bill Z across five locations in Colorado, Idaho, Nebraska, and Washington in the WRBT in 2005 and 2006 (Table 2
; P. Miklas, personal communication, 2007). In the CDBN, maturity of Kimberly across 10 locations in the United States and Canada ranged from 83 to 103 d with a mean of 94 d compared with the respective values of 78 to 93 and 86 d for Othello (Table 1; Hang, 2006).
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In southern Idaho, the western and northern United States, and southwestern Canada, the dry bean growing season usually begins in mid-May and finishes in mid- to late September. However, soil temperatures in mid-May could be <15°C, resulting in slow and poor germination and enhanced root rots and seed decay, especially when low soil temperature is combined with excessive soil moisture. Consequently, plant population and bean yield are adversely affected. Moreover, there is a chance of mild to severe frost in the beginning and end of the growing season. Therefore, cultivars of 85- to 90-d maturity are relatively less risky because they could be planted from late May to early June and harvested at the end of August or early September. Such cultivars (e.g., pinto Othello and pink Viva developed at USDA-ARS, Prosser, WA) are likely to possess a broader adaptation and would be stable and more reliable for bean producers in southern Idaho and other western and northern regions in the United States and southwestern Canada. There is strong emphasis on development of cultivars even earlier maturing than Othello and Viva at Saskatoon, SK and Lethbridge, AB. because of the shorter growing season and much higher risks due to frost at yet higher latitudes. The major weakness of early-maturing cultivars in southern Idaho and other western U.S. states could be their relatively lower yield compared with full-season cultivars such as pinto Bill Z. White and Singh (1991) reported that seed yield was reduced by approximately 12 kg ha–1 by each day of earliness at tropical Palmira, Colombia. However, in environments such as Alberta and Saskatchewan, early-maturing cultivars would likely outyield and produce better-quality marketable seed than cultivars such as Bill Z. In regards to pinto Kimberly, Idaho bean producers would be taking greater risks if plantings are delayed much beyond 1 June.
Biomass Yield and Harvest Index
Kimberly had a mean biomass yield of 6402 kg ha–1 with harvest index of 0.54 at Ithaca, NY, compared with the respective values of 6018 kg ha–1 and 0.50 for Othello in the CDBN in 2006 (Hang, 2006). At the same location, Shoshone had a mean biomass yield of 6111 kg ha–1 with harvest index of 0.54. Among all dry bean, the race Durango cultivars have the highest (
0.60) harvest index (Singh, 1989; Singh et al., 1991). Maximizing seed yield through simultaneously increasing biomass yield and harvest index is a worthwhile strategy (Wallace, 1985; Wallace et al., 1993), especially for production regions such as southern Idaho that have only one crop per year. However, for full-season growing environments, the upper limits of biomass production for the race Durango cultivars in the northwestern United States are not known. Moreover, breeders interested in improving harvest index of cultivars such as Bill Z and Kimberly using the early-maturity gene from Othello and similar cultivars would face a daunting challenge because of a negative association between early maturity and seed yield (White and Singh, 1991).
Seed Coat Color Darkening
Post-harvest seed coat color darkening is a major problem in pinto, pink, red, and other market classes of edible dry bean. It gives an appearance of an old bean that consumers dislike and therefore fetches a lower price while trading in domestic and international markets. There is considerable variation for seed coat color darkening in pinto and other market classes. For example, after 8 mo of storage at room temperature pinto Kimberly had a seed coat color darkening score of 3 on a 1 to 9 scale (where 1 = no appreciable darkening after harvest and 9 = completely darkened seed coat), and Shoshone a score of 4, in contrast to 5 for Bill Z, 6 for G 17341 and Othello, 7 for Poncho, and 9 for Kodiak and BelDakMiRMR-14. Thus, there was transgressive segregation for lighter and slower seed coat color darkening in both crosses from which Kimberly and Shoshone were derived.
The landraces grown by Native Americans, such as the Common Pinto and San Juan, and cultivars developed in the early years of pinto breeding (from 1944 to about 1980) such as UI 111 and UI 114 in the western United States possess relatively lighter seed coat color that darkens slower than modern cultivars such as Buster, Kodiak, UI 320, and Winchester. This could be due to very limited genetic diversity available in the early years of breeding in the United States; most crossing was within the same race Durango landraces and breeding lines of different market classes (e.g., crossing great northern by pinto or great northern by red), and probably more stringent selection for seed coat color was practiced. However, the need to change plant type from the prostrate viny Type III to more upright Type II and breed for resistance to diseases such as rust, anthracnose, common bacterial blight, root rots, and white mold to address production problems and develop cultivars suitable for the midwestern United States increased from the mid-1970s onward. Thus, broadening of genetic base and use of non-race Durango germplasm, especially small black, cream, red, and white bean from coastal Mexico, Central America, CIAT, and others, was emphasized in most private and public programs nationwide. Consequently, selection for light-colored slow-darkening pinto became more challenging, especially for the more humid midwestern states because high humidity and warmer temperatures accelerate and accentuate post-harvest seed coat color darkening problems.
We used two strategies to develop light-colored slow-darkening pinto. First, we used medium white-seeded great northern ‘Matterhorn’ (Kelly et al., 1999b). In addition to white seed coat color, which has recessive alleles for color producing genes, Matterhorn has a more upright Type II growth habit, is high yielding, is broadly adapted, and has resistance to BCMV, rust, and has a moderate level of drought stress tolerance. The cross of three pinto beans with Matterhorn resulted in the first light-colored slow-darkening pinto breeding line, SDIP-1 (Singh et al., 2006) developed in the United States. The second strategy used a tropical pinto germplasm, G 17341, which has semishiny small pinto seed variable for slow-darkening seed coat color. While at CIAT, the senior author had identified slow-darkening seed coat color in other market classes, including beige, cream, red, and red mottled from CIAT's large collection of germplasm. Also, relatively warm and humid climate at CIAT year-round accelerated seed coat color darkening process and therefore facilitated selection. For the present market standards in the United States, seed coat color of pinto SDIP-1 may be a bit too light. However, the color of Kimberly and Shoshone is in between Bill Z (score of 5) and SDIP-1 (score <3) after about 1 yr of storage at room temperature. Thus, Kimberly and Shoshone should have a longer storage life and allow more flexibility for producers and processors to take advantage of higher market prices in the off-season or later in the year.
Canning Quality
Although the major portion of pinto bean is sold as a dry pack, some canning is done for domestic consumption and export. The consumption of canned pinto bean may increase with or without mixing other ingredients whereby the wholesome appearance of intact seed coat and broth color continue to be important for the consumers. It is therefore important to know the canning characteristics of new pinto cultivars. In the CDBN canning trial conducted in Michigan and New York in 2006, the variation in size, color, and freedom from splits for Kimberly and Shoshone were within the acceptable limits and comparable to that of Othello (Table 2; Hang, 2006).
Seed Weight
Kimberly and Bill Z had a similar mean 100-seed weight of 34 g, whereas Shoshone weighed 36 g in the IDBT across 15 environments and production systems in Idaho in 2005 and 2006 (Table 3
). In the WRBT in 2005 and 2006, 100 seeds of Kimberly and Shoshone weighed 36 g, and 100 g of Bill Z weighed 35 g (Table 3). In the CDBN across 10 environments in the United States and Canada in 2006, 100 seeds of Kimberly weighed 35 g, compared with 36 g for Shoshone and Othello (Table 3).
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Seed Yield
Over a long period, pinto Bill Z has been among the highest-yielding cultivars in Colorado, Idaho, and other western states in favorable full-season growing conditions if not infected by diseases such as white mold or killed by early frost. Mean seed yield of Kimberly was significantly (P < 0.05) higher (2603 kg ha–1 compared with 2267 kg ha–1) than that of Bill Z in the IDBT across 15 environments comprising stressed and nonstressed organic and conventional production systems in southern Idaho in 2005 and 2006 (Table 4
). In the same environments the mean seed yield of Shoshone was 2390 kg ha–1. At two locations in Colorado in 2006, the mean yield of Kimberly was 4040 kg ha–1 compared with 4135 kg ha–1 for Bill Z, 3850 kg ha–1 for ‘Montrose’, 3400 kg ha–1 for Poncho and Othello, and 3300 kg ha–1 for ‘Grand Mesa’ (Johnson et al., 2006). In the ADM edible bean trial at two locations in North Dakota in 2006, the mean yield of pinto Kimberly was 2945 kg ha–1 compared with 2730 kg ha–1 for ‘Buster’, 2340 kg ha–1 for ‘Maverick’, and 2215 kg ha–1 for ‘Pintoba’ (E. Spencer, 2006). In the CDBN across 11 locations in the United States and Canada in 2006, Shoshone was the highest-yielding genotype among pinto bean, with a mean yield of 2922 kg ha–1, whereas Kimberly yielded 2777 kg ha–1, compared with 2734 kg ha–1 for Othello (Table 4; Hang, 2006).
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Area of Adaptation
Kimberly was developed for 100-d and Shoshone for 90- to 95-d frost-free bean production regions of southern Idaho. However, they have exhibited a broad adaptation in relatively warmer bean growing environments in the western and midwestern United States. Because of their semiprostrate growth habit and lack of resistance to anthracnose and white mold, Kimberly and Shoshone may have limited adaptation in or not be suited to the relatively cool and wet environments in the midwestern United States and Canada.
Availability
Breeder and Foundation seed of Kimberly and Shoshone will be maintained by the Idaho Foundation Seed Program under the direction of the Idaho Agricultural Experiment Station, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID 83844. Moreover, Kimberly and Shoshone will have Foundation, Registered, and Certified classes of seed. An application will be filed for cultivar protection under Title V of the Plant Variety Protection Act. A small quantity of seed of Kimberly and Shoshone for research purposes is available from the corresponding author for the first 5 yr. If Kimberly and Shoshone are used for research or contribute to germplasm enhancement or development of breeding line or cultivar, appropriate acknowledgment of the researchers and institution responsible for development of Kimberly and Shoshone will be highly appreciated.
Acknowledgments
We thank David Webster and Carl Strausbaugh for their help with some disease evaluations; Robert Duncan for verifying the presence or absence of the SCAR marker SW 13; Phillip Miklas, Howard Schwartz, Mark Brick, and Carlos Urrea for evaluations in the WRBT; Jerry Johnson for Colorado and Eben Spencer for North Dakota seed yield data; and An Hang and all participants of the CDBN for data and their collaboration. Financial support from the Idaho Bean Commission and the College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, University of Idaho, is gratefully acknowledged.
Footnotes
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Received for publication December 27, 2007.
References
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